Fundamentals Of Power Supply Design Robert A 32
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A switched-mode power supply (switching-mode power supply, switch-mode power supply, switched power supply, SMPS, or switcher) is an electronic power supply that incorporates a switching regulator to convert electrical power efficiently.
Like other power supplies, an SMPS transfers power from a DC or AC source (often mains power, see AC adapter) to DC loads, such as a personal computer, while converting voltage and current characteristics. Unlike a linear power supply, the pass transistor of a switching-mode supply continually switches between low-dissipation, full-on and full-off states, and spends very little time in the high dissipation transitions, which minimizes wasted energy. A hypothetical ideal switched-mode power supply dissipates no power. Voltage regulation is achieved by varying the ratio of on-to-off time (also known as duty cycles). In contrast, a linear power supply regulates the output voltage by continually dissipating power in the pass transistor. The switched-mode power supply's higher electrical efficiency is an important advantage.
Switched-mode power supplies can also be substantially smaller and lighter than a linear supply because the transformer can be much smaller. This is because it operates at a high switching frequency which ranges from several hundred kHz to several MHz in contrast to the 50 or 60 Hz mains frequency. Despite the reduced transformer size, the power supply topology and the requirement for electromagnetic interference (EMI) suppression in commercial designs result in a usually much greater component count and corresponding circuit complexity.
Switching regulators are used as replacements for linear regulators when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight is required. They are, however, more complicated; switching currents can cause electrical noise problems if not carefully suppressed, and simple designs may have a poor power factor.
In contrast, a SMPS changes output voltage and current by switching ideally lossless storage elements, such as inductors and capacitors, between different electrical configurations. Ideal switching elements (approximated by transistors operated outside of their active mode) have no resistance when \"on\" and carry no current when \"off\", and so converters with ideal components would operate with 100% efficiency (i.e., all input power is delivered to the load; no power is wasted as dissipated heat). In reality, these ideal components do not exist, so a switching power supply cannot be 100% efficient, but it is still a significant improvement in efficiency over a linear regulator.
The main advantage of the switching power supply is greater efficiency (up to 96%) and lower heat generation than linear regulators because the switching transistor dissipates little power when acting as a switch.
Any switched-mode power supply that gets its power from an AC power line (called an \"off-line\" converter[33]) requires a transformer for galvanic isolation.[citation needed] Some DC-to-DC converters may also include a transformer, although isolation may not be critical in these cases. SMPS transformers run at high frequency. Most of the cost savings (and space savings) in off-line power supplies result from the smaller size of the high frequency transformer compared to the 50/60 Hz transformers formerly used. There are additional design tradeoffs.[34]
Simple off-line switched mode power supplies incorporate a simple full-wave rectifier connected to a large energy storing capacitor. Such SMPSs draw current from the AC line in short pulses when the mains instantaneous voltage exceeds the voltage across this capacitor. During the remaining portion of the AC cycle the capacitor provides energy to the power supply.
In a quasi-resonant zero-current/zero-voltage switch (ZCS/ZVS) \"each switch cycle delivers a quantized 'packet' of energy to the converter output, and switch turn-on and turn-off occurs at zero current and voltage, resulting in an essentially lossless switch.\"[44] Quasi-resonant switching, also known as valley switching, reduces EMI in the power supply by two methods:
Failure of the switching transistor is common. Due to the large switching voltages this transistor must handle (around 325 V for a 230 VAC mains supply), these transistors often short out, in turn immediately blowing the main internal power fuse.
Switched-mode power supply units (PSUs) in domestic products such as personal computers often have universal inputs, meaning that they can accept power from mains supplies throughout the world, although a manual voltage range switch may be required. Switch-mode power supplies can tolerate a wide range of power frequencies and voltages.
Switched-mode power supplies are used for DC to DC conversion as well. In heavy vehicles that use a nominal 24 VDC cranking supply, 12 V for accessories may be furnished through a DC/DC switch-mode supply. This has the advantage over tapping the battery at the 12 V position (using half the cells) that the entire 12 V load is evenly divided between all cells of the 24 V battery. In industrial settings such as telecommunications racks, bulk power may be distributed at a low DC voltage (e.g. from a battery back up system) and individual equipment items will have DC/DC switched-mode converters to supply required voltages.
The term switch mode was widely used until Motorola claimed ownership of the trademark SWITCHMODE for products aimed at the switching-mode power supply market and started to enforce their trademark.[33] Switching-mode power supply, switching power supply, and switching regulator refer to this type of power supply.[33]
Beware of using the nameplate. This is a legality rating and will usually give a much higher volt-ampere rating than the unit will ever draw. For example, consider a unit with a nameplate that reads 90 to 240 volts at 4 to 8 amps with a 500 W power supply. In the nameplate reading, the numbers are backward. The larger amperage goes with the lower voltage. If you assume a nominal 120 volts at 8 amps, you get 960 VA. A PF of 0.95 would yield 912 W. No power supply is that inefficient, and a power supply almost never runs at full power. Therefore, it is highly unlikely that this device will ever draw more than 500 W of power, but if you want to be really conservative, multiply by 1.1 and figure 550 W of input power.
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Fundamentals of power supply is an essential reference guide for electronics engineers and hobbyists. It provides an in depth explanation of power supply design and construction principles and components.
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